Smoking Cessation Pharmacotherapies- An Update
Abstract
Background: The prevalence of smoking continues to be a high in several countries across the world contributing to both increased morbidity and mortality. Strategies trialled at a community level to decrease the prevalence of smoking include controls on the marketing and promotion of cigarettes and the provision of phone-based counselling services to support smokers wanting to quit. At an individual level the options to assist with smoking cessation include behavioural support and pharmacotherapy alone or in combination.
Methods: A literature review was undertaken of the efficacy and safety of pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation focusing on randomised controlled trials (RCTs), systematic reviews and meta-analyses published since 2011.
Results: Most RCTs and meta-analyses support the effectiveness of NRT, bupropion and varenicline in smoking cessation. Abstinence rates at 6 months or longer range from 12.2% to 22.5% for NRT versus 9.4% to 13.3% for placebo, 19.7% to 39.1% for bupropion versus 11.5% to 26% for placebo and 23.3% to 28.5% for varenicline versus 8.2% to 12.7% for placebo. A Cochrane review of 267 studies provided further support that NRT, bupropion and varenicline are superior to placebo for quitting smoking. Some combination therapies appear promising with higher abstinence rates shown in smokers randomised to varenicline plus NRT and varenicline plus bupropion than single therapy. Some favourable results have also been with cytisine, nortriptyline, topiramate, baclofen and psilocybin whilst the place of nicotine e-cigarettes in smoking cessation has not been determined.
Conclusion: Clinical guidelines suggest that to increase smoking cessation success interventions should include both behavioural support and pharmacotherapy. Although NRT, bupropion and varenicline continue to be first line therapies there is some evidence that some pharmacotherapy combinations are significantly more effective than single therapy. Further research is required to determine the both the long-term safety of pharmacotherapy and the safety in specific populations.
Keywords
Full Text:
Subscribers OnlyReferences
McNeil JJ, Piccenna L, Ioannides-Demos LL. Smoking cessation- Recent advances. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2010; 24:359-67. doi: 10.1007/s10557-010-6246-8
Ng M, Freeman MK, Fleming TD, et al. Smoking prevalence and cigarette consumption in 187 countries 1980-2012. JAMA. 2014; 311(2):183-92. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.284692.
Hammond D. "Plain packaging" regulations for tobacco products: the impact of standardizing the color and design of cigarette packs. Salud Publica Mex. 2010; 52 (Suppl 2):S226-32.
Hammond D, Daniel S, White CM. The effect of cigarette branding and plain packaging on female youth in the United Kingdom. J Adolesc Health. 2013; 52(2):151-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.003.
Stead M, Moodie C, Angus K, Bauld L, McNeill A, Thomas J, et al. Is consumer response to plain/standardised tobacco packaging consistent with framework convention on tobacco control guidelines? A systematic review of quantitative studies. PLoS One. 2013; 8(10):e75919. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075919.
Hoek J, Edwards R, Daube A O M. Standardised (plain) packaging: the time for implementation has come. N Z Med J. 2015;128(1417):47-51.
Hoffman SJ, Tan C. Overview of systematic reviews on the health-related effects of government tobacco control policies. BMC Public Health. 2015; 15:744, doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2041-6.
Dunlop SM, Dobbins T, Young JM, Perez D, Currow DC. Impact of Australia's introduction of tobacco plain packs on adult smokers' pack-related perceptions and responses: results from a continuous tracking survey. BMJ Open. 2014; 4(12):e005836. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-.
Stead LF, Koilpillai P, Lancaster T. Additional behavioural support as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015; Issue 10:Art. No.: CD009670. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009670.pub3.
Stead LF, Koilpillai P, Fanshawe TR, Lancaster T. Combined pharmacotherapy and behavioural interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016; Issue 3:Art. No.: CD008286. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008286.pub3.
Hollands GJ, McDermott MS, Lindson-Hawley N, Farley A, Aveyard P. Interventions to increase adherence to medications for tobacco dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015; Issue 2:Art. No CD009164. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009164.pub2.
Patnode CD, Henderson JT, Thompson JH, Senger CA, Fortmann SP, Whitlock EP. Behavioral counseling and pharmacotherapy interventions for tobacco cessation in adults, including pregnant women: A review of reviews for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015; 163(8):608-21. doi: 10.7326/M15-0171.
Cawkwell PB, Blaum C, Sherman SE. Pharmacological smoking cessation therapies in older adults: A review of the evidence. Drugs Aging. 2015; 32(6):443-51. doi: 10.1007/s40266-015-0274-9.
Benowitz NL. Nicotine addiction. N Engl J Med. 2010; 362(24):2295-303. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra0809890.
Chen LS, Bloom AJ, Baker TB, Smith SS, Piper ME, Martinez M, et al. Pharmacotherapy effects on smoking cessation vary with nicotine metabolism gene (CYP2A6). Addiction. 2014; 109(1):128-37. doi: 10.1111/add.12353.
Bergen AW, Javitz HS, Krasnow R, Michel M, Nishita D, Conti DV, et al. Organic cation transporter variation and response to smoking cessation therapies. Nicotine Tobacco Res 2014; 16(12):1638-46. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntu161.
Li H, Li S, Wang Q, et al. Associations of cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase genetic polymorphisms with smoking cessation in a Chinese population. Human Genetics. 2016; 135(12):1389-97. doi:10.1007/s00439-016-1728-9
Frishman WH. Smoking cessation pharmacotherapy. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis. 2009; 3:287-308. doi: 10.1177/1753944709335754.
Benowitz NL. Cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease: Pathophysiology and implications for treatment. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2003; 46:91-111.
Barboza JL, Patel R, Patel P, Hudmon KS. An update on the pharmacotherapeutic interventions for smoking cessation. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2016; 17(11):1483-96. doi: 10.080/14656566.2016.1197203.
Beard E, Shahab L, Cummings DM, Michie S, West R. New pharmacological agents to aid smoking cessation and tobacco harm reduction: What has been investigated, and what is in the pipeline? CNS Drugs. 2016; 30:951-83. doi: 10.1007/s40263-016-0362-3.
Schnoll RA, Goelz PM, Veluz-Wilkins A, Blazekovic S, Powers L, Leone FT, et al. Long-term nicotine replacement therapy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2015; 175(4):504-11. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.8313.
Caldwell BO, Adamson SJ, Crane J. Combination rapid-acting nicotine mouth spray and nicotine patch therapy in smoking cessation. Nicotine Tobacco Res. 2014; 16(10):1356-64.
Mills EJ, Wu P, Lockhart I, Thorlund K, Puhan M, Ebbert JO. Comparisons of high-dose and combination nicotine replacement therapy, varenicline, and bupropion for smoking cessation: A systematic review and multiple treatment meta-analysis. Ann Med. 2012; 44(6):588-97. doi: 10.3109/07853890.2012.705016.
Dinakar C, O'Connor GT. The health effects of electronic cigarettes. N Engl J Med 2016;375(14):1372-81. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1502466.
Rahman MA, Hann N, Wilson A, Mnatzaganian G, Worrall-Carter L. E-cigarettes and smoking cessation: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015; 10(3):e0122544. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.
D’Ruiz CD, Graff DW, Yan XS. Nicotine delivery, tolerability and reduction of smoking urge in smokers following short-term use of one brand of electronic cigarettes. BMC Public Health 2015; 15:991. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2349-2.
McRobbie H, Bullen C, Hartmann-Boyce J, Hajek P. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation and reduction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014; 12: CD010216. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010216.pub2.
Orr KK, Asal NJ. Efficacy of electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation. Ann Pharmacother. 2014; 48(11):1502-6. doi: 10.1177/1060028014547076.
Beard E, West R, Michie S, Brown J. Association between electronic cigarette use and changes in quit attempts, success of quit attempts, use of smoking cessation pharmacotherapy, and use of stop smoking services in England: time series analysis of population trends. BMJ. 2016;i4645, doi: 10.1136/bmj.i4645.
Bullen C, Howe C, Laugesen M, McRobbie H, Parag V, Williman J, et al. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2013; 382(9905):1629-37. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61842-5
Caponnetto P, Campagna D, Cibella F, Morjaria JB, Caruso M, Russo C, et al. EffiCiency and Safety of an eLectronic cigAreTte (ECLAT) as tobacco cigarettes substitute: A prospective 12-month randomized control design study. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8(6):e66317. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066317.
Hartmann-Boyce J, McRobbie H, Bullen C, Begh R, Stead LF, Hajek P. Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016; 9:Art. No.:CD010216. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010216.pub3.
Hiemstra PS, Bals R. Basic science of electronic cigarettes: assessment in cell culture and in vivo models. Resp Res. 2016; 17:127. doi:10.1186/s12931-016-0447-z.
Leigh NJ, Lawton RI, Hershberger PA, Goniewicz ML. Flavourings significantly affect inhalation toxicity of aerosol generated from electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS). Tobacco Control. 2016; online 15 Sep. doi: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2016-053205.
Hosseinzadeh A, Thompson PR, Segal BH, Urban CF. Nicotine induces neutrophil extracellular traps. J Leukocyte Biol. 2016; 100(5):1105. doi:10.1189/jlb.3AB0815-379RR.
Hughes JR, Stead LF, Hartmann-Boyce J, Cahill K, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014; 1:CD000031. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000031.pub4.
Warner C, Shoaib M. How does bupropion work as a smoking cessation aid. Addict Biol. 2005; 10(3):219-31. doi:10.1080/13556210500222670
Wilkes S. The use of bupropion SR in cigarette smoking cessation. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2008; 3:45-53.
Zhu AZ, Cox LS, Nollen N, Faseru B, Okuyemi KS, Ahluwalia JS, et al. CYP2B6 and bupropion's smoking-cessation pharmacology: the role of hydroxybupropion. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2012; 92(6):771-7. doi: 10.1038/clpt.2012.186.
Tomaz PR, Santos JR, Issa JS, Abe TO, Gaya PV, Krieger JE, et al. CYP2B6 rs2279343 polymorphism is associated with smoking cessation success in bupropion therapy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2015; 71(9):1067-73. doi: 10.1007/s00228-015-1896-x.
Cahill K, Stevens S, Perera R, Lancaster T. Pharmacological interventions for smoking cessation: an overview and network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 5:CD009329. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009329.pub2.
Anthenelli RM, Benowitz NL, West R, St Aubin L, McRae T, Lawrence D, et al. Neuropsychiatric safety and efficacy of varenicline, bupropion, and nicotine patch in smokers with and without psychiatric disorders (EAGLES): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 2016; 387:2507-20. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30272-0.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). FDA Briefing Document. Joint Meeting of the Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee and Drug Safety and Risk Management Advisory Committee. Serious neuropsychiatric adverse events with drugs for smoking cessation. 14 September Accessed on 21 September 2016 at: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/Drugs/PsychopharmacologicDrugsAdvisoryCommittee/UCM520103.pdf
McRobbie H, Lee M, Juniper Z. Non-nicotine pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation. Resp Med. 2005; 99(10):1203-12. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2005.05.016.
Dhippayom T, Chaiyakunapruk N, Jongchansittho T. Safety of nortriptyline at equivalent therapeutic doses for smoking cessation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Saf 2011; 34(3):199-210. doi: 10.2165/11585950-000000000-00000.
Cahill K, Lindson-Hawley N, Thomas KH, Fanshawe TR, Lancaster T. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016; 5:CD006103. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006103.pub7.
Thomas KT, Martin RM, Knipe DW, Higgins JPT, Gunnell D. Risk of neuropsychiatric adverse events associated with varenicline: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2015; 350:h1109. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h1109.
Kotz D, Simpson C, Viechtbauer W, van Schayck OCP, West R, Sheikh A. Cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric safety of varenicline and bupropion compared with nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation: study protocol of a retrospective cohort study using the QResearch general practice database. BMJ Open. 2014; 4:e005281. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005281.
Ware JH, Vetrovec GW, Miller AB, Van Tosh A, Gaffney M, Yunis C, et al. Cardiovascular safety of varenicline: patient-level meta-analysis of randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Ther. 2013;20(3):235-46. doi: 10.1097/MJT.0b013e31828d455b.
Mills EJ, Thorlund K, Eapen S, Wu P, Prochaska JJ. Cardiovascular events associated with smoking cessation pharmacotherapies: a network meta-analysis. Circulation. 2014; 129(1):28-41. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.003961.
Windle SB, Bata I, Madan M, Abramson BL, Eisenberg MJ. A randomized controlled trial of the efficacy and safety of varenicline for smoking cessation after acute coronary syndrome: design and methods of the Evaluation of Varenicline in Smoking Cessation for Patients Post-Acute Coronary Syndrome trial. Am Heart J. 2015; 170(4):635-40. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2015.07.010.
Eisenberg MJ, Windle SB, Roy N, Old W, Grondin FR, Bata I, et al. Varenicline for Smoking Cessation in Hospitalized Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome. Circulation. 2016; 133(1):21-30. doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.019634.
Mohammadi D. Black-box warnings could be removed from varenicline. Lancet Resp Med. 2016; 4(11):861. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(16)30310-1.
Elks S. Anti-smoking pill the focus of inquest after numerous suicides [press release]. The Australian, Health and Science, Brisbane. Accessed 30 Sep 2016 at http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/antismoking-pill-the-focus-of-inquest-after-numerous-suicides/news-story/3e99ea03043da7103efbdba60e2b4f66
Leaviss J, Sullivan W, Ren S, Everson-Hock E, Stevenson M, Stevens JW, et al. What is the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of cytisine compared with varenicline for smoking cessation? A systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2014; 18(33):1-120. doi: 10.3310/hta18330.
Walker N, Bullen C, Barnes J, McRobbie H, Tutka P, Raw M, et al. Getting cytisine licensed for use world-wide: a call to action. Addiction. 17 Jul 2016; doi: 10.1111/add.13464.
Hajek P, McRobbie H, Myers K. Efficacy of cytisine in helping smokers quit: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax. 2013; 68(11):1037-42. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2012-203035.
West R, Zatonski W, Cedzynska M, Lewandowska D, Pazik J, Aveyard P, et al. Placebo-controlled trial of cytisine for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med. 2011; 365(13):1193-200. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1102035.
Zatoński W, Zatoński M. Cytisine versus nicotine for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med. 2015; 372(11):1072. doi: 10.56/NEJMc1500342.
Walker N, Howe C, Glover M, McRobbie H, Barnes J, Nosa V, et al. Cytisine versus nicotine for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med. 2014; 371(25):2353-62. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1407764.
Goniewicz ML, Delijewski M. Nicotine vaccines to treat tobacco dependence. Hum Vaccin Immunotherap. 2013;9(1):13-25. doi:10.4161/hv.22060.
Lockner JW, Lively JM, Collins KC, Vendruscolo JCM, Azar MR, Janda KD. A conjugate vaccine using enantiopure hapten imparts superior nicotine-binding capacity. J Med Chem. 2015; 58:1005-11. doi: 10.1021/jm501625j
Pentel PR, LeSage MG. New directions in nicotine vaccine design and use. Adv Pharmacol. 2014; 69:553-80. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-420118-7.00014-7.
David SP, Lancaster T, Stead LF, Evins AE, Prochaska JJ. Opioid antagonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 6:CD003086. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003086.pub3.
David SP, Chu IM, Lancaster T, Stead LF, Evins AE, Prochaska JJ. Systematic review and meta-analysis of opioid antagonists for smoking cessation. BMJ Open 2014; 4(3):e004393. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004393.
Oncken C, Arias AJ, Feinn R, Litt M, Covault J, Sofuoglu M, et al. Topiramate for smoking cessation: a randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Nicotine Tob Res. 2016; 16(3):288-96. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntt141.
Khazaal Y, Cornuz J, Bilancioni R, Zullino DF. Topiramate for smoking cessation. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006; 60(3):384-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2006.01518.x.
Anthenelli RM, Blom TJ, McElroy SL, Keck PE Jr. Preliminary evidence for gender-specific effects of topiramate as a potential aid to smoking cessation. Addiction. 2008; 103(4):687-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02148.x.
Franklin TR, Harper D, Kampman K, Kildea-McCrea S, Jens W, Lynch KG, et al. The GABA B agonist baclofen reduces cigarette consumption in a preliminary double-blind placebo-controlled smoking reduction study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 103:30-6. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.02.014.
White WD, Crockford DN, Currie SR, Pattern S, el-Guebaly N. A prospective single-arm open-label study of baclofen and bupropion sr combination therapy for smoking cessation. Addict Disord Treatment. 2011; 10(3):101-4. doi: 10.1097/ADT.0b013e3181fdcffd.
Johnson MW, Garcia-Romeu A, Griffiths RR. Long-term follow-up of psilocybin-facilitated smoking cessation. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2016;ahead of print Jul 21:1-6.
Koegelenberg CF, Noor F, Bateman ED, van Zyl-Smit RN, Bruning A, O'Brien JA, et al. Efficacy of varenicline combined with nicotine replacement therapy vs varenicline alone for smoking cessation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312(2):155-61. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.7195.
Ramon JM, Morchon S, Baena A, Masuet-Aumatell C. Combining varenicline and nicotine patches: a randomized controlled trial study in smoking cessation. BMC Med. 2014;12:172. doi: 10.1186/s12916-014-0172-8.
Chang PH, Chiang CH, Ho WC, Wu PZ, Tsai JS, FR. G. Combination therapy of varenicline with nicotine replacement therapy is better than varenicline alone: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:689. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2055-0.
Ebbert JO, Hatsukami DK, Croghan IT, Schroeder DR, Allen SS, Hays JT, et al. Combination varenicline and bupropion SR for tobacco-dependence treatment in cigarette smokers: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2014; 311(2):155-63. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.283185.
Hong AS, Elrashidi MY, Schroeder DR, Ebbert JO. Depressive symptoms among patients receiving varenicline and bupropion for smoking cessation. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2015; 52:78-81. doi: 10.1016/j.jsat.2014.11.010.
Rose JE, Behm FM. Combination treatment with varenicline and bupropion in an adaptive smoking cessation paradigm. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171(11):1199-205. doi: 10.76/appi.ajp.2014.13050595.
Vogeler T, McClain C, Evoy KE. Combination bupropion SR and varenicline for smoking cessation: a systematic review. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2016; 4(2):129-39. doi: 10.3109/00952990.2015.1117480.
Hajek P, Stead LF, West R, Jarvis M, Hartmann-Boyce J, Lancaster T. Relapse prevention interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 8:Art. No: CD003999. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003999.pub4.
Roberts E, Evins AE, McNeill A, Robson D. Efficacy and tolerability of pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation in adults with serious mental illness: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Addiction. 2016; 111(4):599-612. doi: 10.1111/add.13236.
Tsoi DT, Porwal M, Webster AC. Interventions for smoking cessation and reduction in individuals with schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 2:CD007253, doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007253.pub3.
Kishi T, Iwata N. Varenicline for smoking cessation in people with schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015; 265(3):259-68. doi: 10.1007/s00406-014-0551-3.
Wu Q, Gilbody S, Peckham E, Brabyn S, Parrott S. Varenicline for smoking cessation and reduction in people with severe mental illnesses: systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2016; 111(9):1554-67. doi: 10.111/add.13415.
Mathew AR, Hogarth L, Leventhal AM, Cook JW, Hitsman B. Cigarette smoking and depression comorbidity: systematic review & proposed theoretical model. Addiction. online 15 Sep 2016; doi: 10.1111/add.13604.
van der Meer RM, Willemsen MC, Smit F, Cuijpers P. Smoking cessation interventions for smokers with current or past depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; Issue 8:Art. No: CD006102. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006102.pub2.
Cooper S, Lewis S, Thornton JG, Marlow N, Watts K, Britton J, et al. The SNAP trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial of nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy--clinical effectiveness and safety until 2 years after delivery, with economic evaluation. Health Technol Assessment. 2014; 18(54):1-128. doi: 10.3310/hta18540.
Coleman T, Chamberlain C, Davey MA, Cooper SE, Leonardi-Bee J. Pharmacological interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 12:CD010078. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010078.pub2.
Huang Y, Li W, Yang L, Jiang Y, Wu Y. Long-term efficacy and safety of varenicline for smoking cessation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Public Health. 2012; 20:355. doi:10.1007/s10389-011-0476-5.
Stead LF, Perera R, Bullen C, Mant D, Hartmann-Boyce J, Cahill K, et al. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; 11:CD000146. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000146.pub4.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18103/imr.v3i1.311
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.